Chemistry’s Role in Food Production and Sustainability: Past and Present......Page 2
Chemistry’s Role in Food Production and Sustainability: Past and Present......Page 4
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data......Page 5
Foreword......Page 6
Guilt by Association: Can Chemists Lead the Way Out of the Nutritional Advice Wilderness?......Page 8
Subject Index......Page 9
Part I. Setting the Context......Page 10
Setting the Context......Page 12
Is the “Safety Net” Safe?......Page 13
Figure 1. Kaliapparat of Justus von Liebig (left), photograph courtesy of Roger Rea; American Chemical Society logo with a stylized kaliapparat (right). Reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society.......Page 14
Government Regulation of Food Additives......Page 15
Fertilizers......Page 16
Nutrition and Diet......Page 17
Figure 2. Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin’s dining advice 34 was geared precisely toward maintaining one’s physical and mental well-being. National Library of Medicine Digital Collection.......Page 18
Teaching about Food......Page 19
Food and the Future......Page 20
References......Page 21
Mission of the United States Department of Agriculture......Page 26
Research, Education, and Extension for Food and Agriculture......Page 27
Figure 2. Traditional research areas of the USDA. Image courtesy of the USDA National Agricultural Library Special Collections.......Page 28
Figure 4. Soil health and conservation has always been part of the USDA mission. Image courtesy of the USDA National Agricultural Library Special Collections.......Page 29
Food Security in the United States......Page 30
Government, Academic, and Industry Partnerships......Page 31
References......Page 32
Part II. Sustainability in the Past......Page 36
Importance of Agricultural Development......Page 38
The Greatest Breakthroughs in Agricultural History......Page 39
Figure 1. Antique illustration of a seed drill. Image credit: iStock.com.......Page 40
The 19th Century......Page 41
Figure 4. Cyrus Hall McCormick (1809–1884). Image credit: iStock.com.......Page 42
The 20th Century......Page 43
Other Developments......Page 44
Figure 6. Combined harvester and thresher. Photo courtesy of Kansas Historical Society.......Page 45
Industrial Agriculture......Page 46
Trends and Challenges......Page 47
Sustainable Agriculture......Page 48
Organic Agriculture......Page 49
Herbicides......Page 50
Insecticides......Page 51
Conclusion......Page 52
References......Page 53
Early Medicinal Purposes for Salt......Page 56
Salt as a Meat and Fish Preservative......Page 57
Salt Mining: Ancient Times to the Present......Page 58
Figure 2. Salt deposits on shores of the Dead Sea in Israel. Photo courtesy of M. V. Orna.......Page 59
Figure 3. Salt-evaporation ponds at Maras, Peru, at approximately 3400 m elevation. Photo courtesy of Freeimages.com/Caetano Lacerda.......Page 60
Trade Routes......Page 61
Salt Taxes......Page 62
Modern Use of Salt To De-ice Roads......Page 63
Salt as a Nutrient......Page 64
Figure 6. A Meissen porcelain salt cellar, gilt and hand-painted in underglaze blue. This piece is part of a large (approx. 200-piece) Meissen dinner set. Photo courtesy of a private upstate New York collection.......Page 65
Commercial Varieties of Currently Available Salt......Page 66
Figure 7. Close-up photo of Himalayan Pink Salt. Photo courtesy of the author.......Page 67
References......Page 68
Introduction......Page 72
Phase 2: Early Centuries CE......Page 73
Phase 3: 700 to 1500 CE. The Spread of Cane Sugar to the Medieval Islamic World......Page 74
Phase 4: 16th to 18th Centuries. Sugarcane Cultivation and Manufacture in the New World......Page 75
Phase 5: 19th Century. Production of Sugar from Sugar Beets in Europe and the Introduction of Mechanization and Modern Processing Technology......Page 76
Phase 6: 20th Century. High Fructose Corn Syrup and Other Artificial Sweeteneers......Page 77
Phase 7: 21st Century. New Natural Sweeteners and Other Uses for Sugar......Page 79
Figure 6. Illustration of the multifunctional uses of sugar in foods, beverages, and non-foods such as concrete production. See Eggleston et al. for more information on the uses of sugar 30.......Page 80
Figure 7. Photograph of panela sold in powdered or cone form, which is a popular noncentrifuged sugar product produced in Latin America.......Page 81
References......Page 82
Introduction: The Poison Squad......Page 84
Harvey Wiley: Pure Food and Public Health......Page 85
Enforcement: The Battle for Public Opinion......Page 86
Preservatives in Ketchup......Page 87
Coca-Cola and Caffeine......Page 88
Transitions: From Purity to Nutrition and Diet......Page 89
Limiting Risks......Page 90
References......Page 91
Introduction......Page 94
Adulteration of Foods—A Widespread Practice......Page 95
Fredrick Accum, an Early Food Purity Pioneer......Page 96
Figure 1. A cartoon by Thomas Rowlandson of Accum giving a chemical lecture before an audience at the Surrey Institution of London. The old man in the lower left-hand corner has a copy of “Accum’s Lectures” projecting from his coat pocket. Reproduced with permission from ref 21. Copyright 1925 American Chemical Society.......Page 97
Figure 2. Title page of Accum’s “Treatise on Adulterations of Food.” This work, which passed through many editions in England, the United States, and various European countries, marked the beginning of the modern pure food movement. Reproduced with permission from ref 22. Copyright 1925 American Chemical Society.......Page 98
William B. O’Shaughnessy—A Voice Crying in the Wilderness......Page 99
Arthur Hill Hassall—Public Attention at Last......Page 100
Figure 3. The table of contents for Arthur Hill Hassall’s Adulterations Detected, or Plain Instructions for the Discovery of Fraud in Food and Medicine, 2nd ed.; Longmans, Green, and Co.: London, 1876; pp vii–viii (ref 29).......Page 101
The Physiological Effects of Heavy Metal Poisoning......Page 102
The Advent of Aniline Dyes......Page 103
The Advent of Synthetic Food Dye Regulation......Page 105
Figure 4. Progressive legislation on the chopping block. Reproduced with permission from ref 51. Copyright 2005 Food and Drug Law Institute. Courtesy of S. W. Junod.......Page 106
Figure 5. The canned food industry’s reaction to Wiley’s regulations. Reproduced with permission from ref 51. Copyright 2005 Food and Drug Law Institute. Courtesy of S. W. Junod.......Page 107
Food Colorant Usage Comes Full Circle......Page 110
Figure 7. Carmine, a metal chelate complex of carminic acid.......Page 112
Of Labels—What’s in a Name?......Page 113
References......Page 114
Alcoholic Beverages as the Universal Medicine before Synthetics......Page 120
Setting the Stage for Archaeological Pharmaceutics......Page 122
A Primate Love for Alcohol......Page 123
The First Biotechnology......Page 124
Ancient China: A Paradigmatic Example of Alcoholic Beverages Being the Universal Medicine of Humankind......Page 126
Figure 1. Early Neolithic jars, with high flaring necks and rims, from Jiahu (Henan province, China), ca. 6,000–5,500 B.C.E. Analyses by the author and his colleagues showed that such jars contained a mixed fermented beverage of rice, honey, and fruit (hawthorn fruit and/or grape). (Photograph courtesy of J. Zhang, University of Science and Technology in China, and Henan Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, nos. M252:1, M482:1, and M253:1 [left to right], height 20 cm [leftmost jar].)......Page 127
Figure 2. Bronze you jar, which contained a medicinal rice beer that was still liquid when it was recovered in 1998 from the Changzikou tomb, dated ca. 1250–1000 B.C.E., in Luyi Country, eastern Henan Province. (Photograph courtesy of J. Zhang and Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology of Henan Province.)......Page 129
Figure 3. Thermal desorption GC-MS analysis of lidded you jar from the Changzikou tomb. Chromatographic peaks a, b, and c are due to benzaldehyde, camphor, and α-cedrene, respectively. Possible wine-derived propanoic acid derivatives account for the two most intense peaks near 10 minutes. Other peaks correlate with ubiquitous environmental contaminants, especially phthalates.......Page 130
References......Page 132
Brief History of Fertilizers......Page 138
Figure 2. Deutsches Museum replica of Justus von Liebig’s laboratory now dismantled. Photograph courtesy of Marie Sherman.......Page 139
Figure 3. Synthesis of TSP, by Sir John Bennet Lawes and Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert.......Page 140
Definition of a Fertilizer......Page 141
Composition of Fertilizers......Page 142
Figure 4. A typical fertilizer package label, Turf fertilizer 25-0-6. Photograph courtesy of Mary Virginia Orna.......Page 143
Urea [(NH2)2CO]......Page 144
Phosphorus (P)......Page 145
Organic Fertilizers......Page 146
Chemical Fertilizers......Page 147
Eutrophication......Page 148
Figure 7. The 2017 Gulf of Mexico dead zone, at 22,730 km2 (approximately the size of the state of New Jersey), is one of the largest ever measured in U.S. waters. Courtesy of N. Rabalais (LSU/LUMCON) and R.E. Turner (LSU). Funded by: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science.......Page 149
Risk Assessment and Fertilizer Regulation......Page 150
References......Page 151
Part III. Sustainability in the Present......Page 156
Introduction......Page 158
New England Graham Flour......Page 159
Gluten......Page 160
Figure 2. A typical gliadin, the “culprit” that triggers celiac disease. Photo courtesy of M. V. Orna.......Page 161
Milling......Page 162
To Bleach or Not To Bleach......Page 163
New Orleans Swans Down Cake Flour......Page 164
Building Better Wheat......Page 165
Biographical Information......Page 166
References......Page 167
Introduction......Page 170
Figure 1. Chemistry in the headlines.......Page 171
Food and Health......Page 172
When the Sample Size is N = 1......Page 173
Diabetes + Obesity = Diabesity Crisis......Page 174
Meet a TOFI and a CRONie......Page 175
The Chemistry of Metabolism......Page 176
Beyond Science: From Dieting to the Role of Advertising and “Sugar’s ‘Tobacco’ Moment”......Page 177
The Science of Sugars......Page 179
Figure 6. Cyclic and acylic forms of glucose and fructose. Glucose can cyclize to a 6-membered ring and fructose into a 5-membered ring.......Page 180
Are You Eating Alone?......Page 181
Is Fermentation the Latest Food Hype?......Page 182
Figure 8. Examples of starch components amylose and amylopectin, as well as the resistant starch inulin.......Page 183
Figure 9. Selected chemicals that stimulate the brain reward center; some are more addictive than others.......Page 185
Figure 10. The way we eat and exercise can influence how our genes are expressed.......Page 187
Figure 11. Cows belch methane gas.......Page 188
Closing Remarks......Page 189
References......Page 190
Introduction......Page 196
A Long History......Page 197
Production versus Environment......Page 198
Analysis of Honey......Page 199
Analysis of Olive Oils......Page 200
The Issue......Page 201
Conclusion......Page 202
References......Page 203
Introduction......Page 206
Figure 2. Projected land loss for coastal Louisiana over the next 50 years if no action is taken 4. Image courtesy of Coastal Master Plan.......Page 207
Figure 3. Salt marsh areas have four times the ability to sequester carbon than neighboring nonmarshy areas 8. Image courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey.......Page 208
Conclusion......Page 209
References......Page 210
Early Food Cultivation......Page 212
Genetic Modification......Page 213
The Great GMO Debate 7......Page 214
GMOs Cause Farmers To Over-Use Pesticides and Herbicides......Page 215
Farmers Cannot Replant Genetically Modified Seeds......Page 216
References......Page 217
Background......Page 220
Domestication of Plants and Animals......Page 221
Food Storage......Page 222
Endogenous Enzymes......Page 223
Oxidation......Page 224
Temperature, Time, and Humidity......Page 225
Natural Substances......Page 226
Glass Containers......Page 227
Polymer-Based Packaging......Page 228
Tamper-Resistant and Tamper-Evident Packaging......Page 229
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)......Page 230
Figure 2. Physical model of a film barrier. Image courtesy of Mary Virginia Orna.......Page 231
Radio Frequency Identification Tags......Page 232
Unintended Consequences......Page 233
References......Page 234
Part IV. Food and the Future......Page 238
Understanding the Chemistry of “Natural” Food Ingredients......Page 240
Developing More Advanced Analytical Techniques for Food......Page 241
Conclusion......Page 243
References......Page 244
Gillian Eggleston......Page 248
Alvin F. Bopp......Page 249
Indexes......Page 250
Author Index......Page 252
F......Page 254
N......Page 255
U......Page 256
W......Page 257
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